레이블이 University of Alabama Transportation Services인 게시물을 표시합니다. 모든 게시물 표시
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2013년 11월 29일 금요일

About 'university of south alabama parking'|The University of Alabama Fan's Guide to BCS Championship Game and Weekend







About 'university of south alabama parking'|The University of Alabama Fan's Guide to BCS Championship Game and Weekend








In               America,               the               formation               of               some               of               the               very               poorest               parts               of               the               cities               or               "ghettos"               as               they               are               sometimes               called               are               inexorably               tied               to               the               formation               of               the               freeways,               the               enforcement               of               restrictive               covenants               and               simultaneously,               the               creation               of               the               suburbs               and               the               forced               importance               of               automobiles.

One               could               not               have               happened               without               the               others,               and               combined               together,               they               changed               our               society               inconceivably.

To               explain               the               interplay               of               these               forces               fully,               background               information               is               needed.

At               the               end               of               World               War               II,               there               was               housing               shortages               in               many               large               cities,               like               Los               Angeles.

The               United               States               government               stepped               in               to               help               alleviate               this               shortage               of               housing.

The               government               basically               instituted               a               number               of               policies               that               led               directly               to               the               formation               and               development               of               the               American               suburbs.

To               use               Los               Angeles               as               an               example,               the               housing               shortage               was               caused               partly               by               all               the               soldiers               returning               from               World               War               II,               African               Americans               migrating               from               the               South               to               cities               like               Los               Angeles,               combined               with               the               fact               that               not               many               houses               were               built               beginning               at               the               start               of               the               Depression               and               continuing               through               World               War               II.

This               range               of               sixteen               years               with               only               very               few               homes               built               contributed               greatly               to               a               shortage               in               the               housing               market.

So,               beginning               in               the               1940s               and               continuing               through               the               1960s,               private               land               developers               built               23               million               new               homes               nationwide,               with               the               majority               of               these               being               built               in               major               cities               like               Los               Angeles               (Jalbert               4).

Private               developers               built               the               suburbs,               which               were               defined               as               residential               areas               at               the               edges               of               cities,               to               offer               alternatives               to               urban               lifestyle               and               living               and               to               shorten               commutes               for               those               people               who               worked               outside               the               major               cities.

The               government               made               policies               that               offered               low               cost               financing               to               millions               of               people.

One               such               program               was               called               The               Veteran's               Mortgage               Guarantee               program.

With               a               very               small               amount               of               money               down               and               low               monthly               payments,               huge               numbers               of               people               were               able               to               buy               houses               in               the               suburbs.

However,               this               money               was               only               available               to               white               people.

These               government               policies               supported               the               development               of               the               suburbs               since               government               policies               helped               to               finance               all               these               houses               in               the               suburbs,               and               they               weren't               very               expensive,               millions               of               people               moved               to               the               suburbs               in               force.

This               phenomenon,               which               would               later               be               called               "white               flight,"               which               in               turn,               led               to               a               decline               in               Los               Angeles               and               other               major               cities               as               the               urban               population               decreased.

When               the               people               left,               many               businesses               went               with               them.

When               the               businesses               left,               less               job               opportunities               were               available               to               the               people               still               in               the               cities.

This,               in               turn,               led               to               more               unemployment               and               more               poverty               and               ultimately,               crime               and               other               more               "urban"               problems.

Also               in               place,               were               restrictive               covenants.

Restrictive               covenants               were               limits               for               homeowners.

In               many               cases,               they               were               agreements               made               between               property               owners               dictating               who               could               buy               homes               and               who               could               not               buy               them.

These               covenants               were               used               to               keep               minorities               out               of               many               areas.

So,               even               if               minorities               could               afford               homes               in               the               suburbs,               they               were               kept               out               by               the               use               of               restrictive               covenants.

According               to               the               web               site               Progressive               LA,               "These               racist               campaigns               were               part               of               a               growing               effort               to               undermine               the               progressive               gains               made               since               the               1930s               (Progressive               LA).

While               urban               areas               declined               rapidly,               suburban               areas               began               to               thrive               economically.

Businesses               began               to               relocate               to               the               suburbs               because               of               increasing               labor               forces               and               cheaper               land,               among               other               factors.
               While               many               organizations               were               providing               low-cost               financing               for               houses               in               the               suburbs,               such               as               the               Home               Owners               Loan               Corporation               and               the               Federal               Housing               Administration,               and               Veteran's               Mortgage               Guarantee               Program,               "the               FHA               refused               to               guarantee               suburban               loans               to               poor               people,               nonwhites,               Jews               and               other               'inharmonious'               racial               and               ethnic               groups"               because               the               value               of               homes               in               the               neighborhood,               according               to               the               FHA,               would               drop               in               value               (Chudacoff,               270).

People               of               color               were               not               able               to               get               these               loans,               hence,               they               were               unable               to               move               to               the               suburbs.

This               process               is               known               as               "redlining."               To               sum               up               redlining,               the               FHA               and               other               organizations               would               not               provide               loans               to               racially               mixed               communities               because               they               were               risky               investments.

this               means               that               as               blacks               or               other               minorities               moved               in,               whites               either               moved               out               right               away               and               were               paid               well               for               their               properties               or               stayed               while               the               neighborhood               became               racially               mixed               and               property               value               decreased.

In               the               end,               if               they               finally               sold,               they               would               lose               money               on               their               house.

Another               process               used               to               "persuade"               minorities               to               congregate               in               the               same               area               was               called               blockbusting.

This               occurred               when               real               estate               agents               told               white               people               that               a               neighborhood               was               going               to               "tip"               or               become               racially               mixed.

Whites               would               sell               their               homes               cheaply,               and               these               agents               sold               them               back               to               blacks               at               huge               profits.

Again,               these               processes               segregated               neighborhoods.

In               other               words,               the               government               itself               supported               discriminatory               practices               by               distributing               money               into               white               communities               and               not               into               those               of               color.

Communities               quickly               became               even               more               racially               segregated               because               people               of               color               were               unable               to               move               and               whites               did               move.

When               the               whites               left,               their               money               went               with               them.

So,               the               jobs               weren't               there.

According               to               Sclove,
               "Gradually,               a               black               and               Hispanic               middle-class               did               emerge.

Its               members               too               fled               along               the               interstate               to               the               suburbs,               further               draining               economic               and               cultural               resources               from               the               inner               city.

this               contributed               to               the               emergence               of               a               new               social               phenomenon:               today's               desperately               deprived,               urban               underclass"               (Sclove).
               Entire               neighborhoods               and               communities               first               became               segregated               racially,               and               later,               economically,               creating               the               dire               urban               problems               of               today.

Jalbert               sums               this               whole               argument               up               so               well               with               "Suburbanization               was               a               decidedly               white               experience               enforced               by               blatant               racism,               unequal               access               to               economic               opportunity,               and               restrictive               housing               covenants"               (Jalbert).

This               summarization               would               be               hard               to               argue               against.

Housing               laws               clearly               favored               whites.
               A               very               general               scenario               tracing               two               families               from               the               1940s               to               today               would               be               as               follows.

The               white               family               would               get               a               loan               and               move               out               of               the               mixed               city               into               a               new,               all-white               suburb.

That               family               would               purchase               a               house.

that               house               would               appreciate               in               value               each               year               in               order               to               actually               earn               wealth               for               this               family.

Every               time               they               made               improvements,               such               as               adding               a               room               or               garage               or               painting               a               bedroom,               or               simply               remodeling,               their               house               would               appreciate               in               value.

Their               children               would               be               able               to               go               to               decent               schools               because               of               where               their               house               is               located.

The               higher               property               tax               base               makes               the               schools               good.

Their               children               could               pursue               a               post-secondary               education               because               even               if               the               family               didn't               have               the               money               in               the               bank               for               this               to               happen,               they               could               take               out               a               loan               with               their               house               as               collateral               or               a               mortgage               on               their               house.

And               now               for               the               second               scenario...
               The               black               family               would               be               stuck               in               what               was               once               a               mixed               city.

In               addition               to               the               original,               established,               African               American               community,               there               would               be               a               large               influx               of               African               Americans               from               the               South,               as               well               as               persons               of               Mexican,               Caribbean,               and               Latin               American               origin.

The               members               of               the               black               family               would               have               to               compete               against               these               new               people               for               jobs.

In               the               1950s               or               so,               the               government               would               decide               to               build               a               highway               or               begin               a               project               of               urban               renewal               in               their               neighborhood               and               demolish               their               house.

They               would               lose               any               money               they               invested               in               their               home.

They               may               then               be               put               into               public               housing               if               they               had               no               money               to               buy               another               house               or               rent               an               over-priced               apartment.

they               now               exist               in               high               rise               buildings               gridlocked               by               elevated               highways               that               cut               them               off               from               others               and               from               "living               spaces               that               promote               social               interaction               and               daily               commerce,               social               control,               and               neighborliness"               (Venkatesh               9).

They               have               no               house               to               mortgage               to               send               their               kids               on               to               school.

Their               kids               would               have               a               hard               time               anyway               because               property               taxes               cannot               raise               enough               to               maintain               the               schools               or               provide               a               quality               education.

for               members               of               the               human               race,               this               is               a               pretty               dismal               picture.

.
               "It's               a               construction               plan               of               epic               proportions.

They're               calling               it               [portentous               pause]               a               freeway!

Eight               lanes               of               shimmering               cement               running               from               here               to               Pasadena!

I               see               a               place               where               people               get               on               and               off               the               freeway,               off               and               on,               off               and               on,               all               day               and               night...I               see               a               street               of               gas               stations,               inexpensive               motels,               restaurants               that               serve               rapidly               prepared               food,               tire               salons,               automobile               dealerships,               and               wonderful,               wonderful               billboards               as               far               as               they               eye               can               see.

My               god,               it'll               be               beautiful!"               No,               this               is               not               the               work               of               an               economic               theorist               or               a               predictor               of               the               future.

This               is               a               scene               from               the               movie               Roger               Rabbit               where               Judge               Doom               sells               off               the               streetcar               system               to               create               this               society.

Does               it               sound               familiar?

This               leads               to               the               idea               of               the               freeway.

What               the               viewer               of               the               movie               knows               is               that               this               is               exactly               what               happened.
               Roman"";">               So,               where               do               the               freeways               come               into               this               picture               and               what               role               did               they               play?

Simultaneously,               as               all               of               these               things               were               happening,               freeways               were               being               built.

These               freeways               made               travel               very               efficient               back               and               forth               to               and               from               the               suburbs.

This               made               people               rely               on               the               automobile               rather               than               public               transportation               because               public               transportation               did               not               go               to               the               suburbs.

As               Marshall               Berman               says               in               All               That               Is               Solid               Melts               Into               Air,
               Roman"";">"The               motive               forces               in               this               reconstruction               were               the               multibillion-dollar               Federal               Highway               Program               and               the               vast               suburban               housing               initiatives               of               the               Federal               Housing               Administration.

This               new               order               integrated               the               whole               nation               into               a               unified               flow               whose               lifeblood               was               the               automobile.

It               conceived               of               cities               principally               as               obstructions               to               the               flow               of               traffic,               and               as               junkyards               of               the               substandard               housing               and               decaying               neighborhoods               from               which               Americans               should               be               given               every               chance               to               escape.

Thousands               of               urban               neighborhoods               were               obliterated...(Berman               288).
               The               development               of               these               freeways               was               also               supported               by               the               government.

Freeways               were               developed               from               the               1940s               through               the               1960s               through               government               policies,               such               as               a               50/50               matching               program               by               the               Bureau               of               Public               Roads.

Freeways               connected               the               suburban               areas               that               were               spatially               isolated               from               the               rest               of               Los               Angeles.

Because               of               these               freeways,               life               in               suburbia               became               even               more               appealing               because               now               suburbanites               could               travel               from               their               homes               to               the               city               in               a               short               time.

Now,               even               more               people               who               worked               in               the               inner               cities               moved               to               the               suburbs               because               travel               was               so               much               more               efficient.

From               this               reading               so               far,               it               sounds               as               though               freeways               were               godsends               to               the               American               public.

However,               as               much               as               they               did               help               the               people               of               suburban               communities,               they               were               equally               destructive               to               the               communities               of               the               inner               cities.
               When               the               freeways               were               built               through               inner               city               neighborhoods,               people               of               color               were               paid,               although               not               well               for               their               houses               in               order               to               build               the               freeways.

However,               many               people               of               color               did               not               own               their               houses               so               they               were               simply               relocated.

Many               of               these               dislocated               people               were               forced               into               housing               projects,               and               these               failed               widely               all               over               the               country.

Urban               housing               was               essentially               destroyed               while               suburban               housing               was               on               the               rise,               AND               subsidized               by               the               government.

Black               ghettos               were               created.

Freeways               were               linked               to               housing               discrimination               and               apartheid               in               America.

Fotsch               contends               that               "the               freeway               is               part               of               dominant               narratives               which               view               African-American               and               Latino               residents               of               the               central               city               as               largely               responsible               for               the               conditions               of               poverty               and               violence               amidst               which               they               live"               (47).

Fotsch               also               calls               the               freeway               "a               symbol               of               isolation               and               isolatability"               (52).

Professor               Mohl               from               The               University               of               Alabama               at               Birmingham               said,               "Highways               cut               apart               cities,               destroying               wide               swaths               of               homes               and               workplaces,               disrupting               and               uprooting               communities               and               forcing               many               into               public               housing"               in               The               Interstates               and               the               Cities:               Highways,               Housing,               and               the               Freeway               Revolt,               (Mohl               1)               He               continues               to               say               that,               "in               retrospect               it               now               seems               apparent               that               public               officials               and               policy               makers,               especially               at               the               state               and               local               levels               used               expressway               construction               to               destroy               low               income               and               especially               Black               neighborhoods               in               an               effort               to               reshape               the               physical               and               racial               landscapes               of               the               postwar               American               city               (Mohl               1).

In               Toll               Roads               and               Free               Roads,               a               report               by               McDonald               and               Associates,               the               authors               made               a               strong               case               that               highway               planning               should               take               place               within               the               context               of               an               ongoing               program               of               slum               clearance               and               urban               development               (Wallace).

Because               land               acquisition               in               these               slum               areas               and               highway               construction               and               urban               development               would               result               in               the               "elimination               of               unsightly               and               unsanitary               districts               when               land               values               are               constantly               depreciating               (Wallace).
               the               problem               also               becomes               that               suburban               residents               still               came               into               the               city               to               work,               but               they               no               longer               paid               taxes,               which               further               drained               resources.

Suburbanites               essentially               paid               nothing               for               the               maintenance               in               the               city.

The               income               tax               base               that               kept               the               city               afloat               is               gone,               so               the               streets               are               dirtier               and               fewer               services               are               provided               there.

Consequently,               people               don't               want               to               live               there.

It               is               all               a               big               circle.
               With               the               creation               of               the               freeways,               the               importance               of               cars               themselves               came               to               be.

People               now               needed               cars               to               commute               to               work.
               "It               is               widely               assumed               that               Americans'               infatuation               with               cars               led               to               the               construction               of               America's               superhighways.

But               actually               when               Congress               passed               the               Interstate               Highway               Act               in               1956,               car               sales               were               slack,               and               there               was               no               popular               clamor               for               building               a               new               road               system.

At               the               time               only               about               half               of               American               families               owned               an               automobile;               everyone               else               depended               on               public               transportation.

Congress               was               responding               to               aggressive               lobbying               by               auto               makers               and               road               builders,               plus               realtors               who               saw               profits               in               developing               suburban               subdivisions"               (Sclove               2).
               So,               the               construction               of               the               freeways               was               first,               which               brought               about               the               importance               of               the               automobile.

Many               people               thrived               with               this               push,               and               others               did               not.
               This               Interstate               Highway               Act               of               1956               changed               many               things               dramatically.

"The               Act's               key               provisions               included               support               for               bringing               highways               directly               into               city               centers               and               earmarking               gasoline               tax               revenues               for               highway               construction.

As               the               interstate               highways               were               built,               city               and               suburban               development               adapted               to               the               quickening               proliferation               of               autos.

Soon               more               Americans               found               themselves               forced               to               buy               a               car               in               order               to               be               able               to               shop               or               hold               a               job.

The               Highway               Trust               Fund,               by               assuring               the               rapid               atrophy               of               competing               public               transit               systems,               bolstered               this               trend.

(Sclove               ).
               Public               transportation               was               hurt               dramatically               by               the               freeway               and               interstate               highway.

This               highway               system               of               42,500               roads               linked               together               cities               across               America               while               cutting               the               cities               themselves               up               into               tiny,               isolated               sections.

Thus,               the               car               became               the               symbol               for               Americans               of               freedom               and               modern               life.

This               American               reliance               on               the               car               didn't               just               change               something;               the               car               changed               everything.
               "Their               popularity               led               to               the               reconstruction               of               the               cityscape,               widened               streets,               parking               lots,               gas               stations,               and,               in               the               post-war               era               as               automobiles               became               a               mass-market               consumable,               the               dismantling               of               urban               trolley               systems               such               as               those               that               once               operated               in               Los               Angeles               and               the               Bay               Area               ((Jalbert).
               The               car               changed               the               very               landscape               of               America.

the               once-vital               urban               areas               are               barren;               and               people               walk               aimlessly               at               the               strip               malls               in               the               suburbs.

Everyone               with               a               car               is               on               the               road               while               public               transportation               gets               sparser               and               less               funding.

This               harmed               inner               city               residents               even               more               as               they               are               the               ones               who               rely               on               public               transportation.
               To               sum               this               up               thus               far,               these               freeways               divided               neighborhoods,               mostly               communities               of               color.

Suburbs               mainly               consisted               of               white               people,               and               inner               cities               consisted               mostly               of               people               of               color.

Whites               were               typically               able               to               resist               the               building               of               freeways               in               their               communities               while               people               of               color               were               not.

The               suburbs               were               already               racially               separated               by               organizations               like               the               Federal               Housing               Administration,               but               now               freeways               became               physical               borders               between               whiteness               and               color.

These               freeways               essentially               served               as               barriers               between               the               rich               and               the               poor,               the               white               and               the               nonwhite.

Ronald               Greene               calls               this               "the               racing               and               placing               of               populations"               (Greene               39).

Many,               many               acres               of               the               inner               cities               were               bulldozed               for               the               creation               of               these               freeways.

"Huge               expressway               interchanges,               cloverleafs,               and               access               ramps               created               enormous               areas               of               dead               and               useless               space               in               the               central               cities"               (Mohl               12).
               In               addition               to               creating               ghettoes,               the               freeways               and               automobiles               created               environmental               problems               galore,               such               as               air               and               noise               pollution.

Again,               race               and               wealth               played               a               big               role               on               the               communities               who               were               hit               with               these               things.

The               Soho               Street               school,               for               example               is               built               in               Boyle               Heights               where               a               tri-level               freeway               exchange               has               been               build.

"The               school               has               no               auditorium               or               cafeteria,               so               students               meet               and               eat               outside.

Walls               of               portable               classrooms               vibrate               when               trucks               go               by               and               do               little               to               keep               out               the               noise.

When               Margarita               Sanchez,               a               nurse               and               mother               of               two               children               in               the               school,               began               walking               her               children               to               school,               she               felt               like               she               was               'suffocating               from               the               pollution               and               noise               of               the               diesel               trucks               traveling               to               the               nearby               freeway               onramps"               (Prussel               1).

The               community               did               get               together               to               get               a               sound               wall               from               Caltrans,               but               was               denied.

They               did               get               the               regulatory               committee               to               install               an               air               quality               monitor.

Initial               reports               from               the               Air               Resources               Board               showed               that               16               of               the               22               days               tested,               the               air               at               Soho               St.

School               violated               the               state               standard               for               particulate               air               (Prussel               1).

Freeways               greatly               impact               air               quality,               and               the               further               away               from               a               freeway               a               neighborhood               is,               the               better               the               air               quality.
               Much               land               in               inner               cities               was               also               bulldozed               for               urban               renewal               projects.

In               other               words,               low               income               housing               was               removed               to               make               way               for               new               development,               and               those               in               charge               gave               little               thought               to               the               people               who               were               displaced.

Many               of               these               urban               renewal               sites               were               vacant               for               years.

According               to               Wendell               Cox               in               "The               Role               of               Urban               Planning               in               the               Decline               of               American               Central               Cities,               "Some               lots               cleared               in               the               1960s               in               Los               Angeles               Bunker               Hill               redevelopment               project               were               still               undeveloped               40               years               later"               (Cox               9).

Urban               renewal               policies               have               decimated               many               poor               and               working               class               neighborhoods.

These               taken               along               with               freeway               construction               and               displacement               have               made               the               modern               ghetto.

Experience               suggests               it               helps               poor               people               to               live               with               the               working               and               middle               classes,               rather               than               be               segregated               into               ghettoes.

).

People               tend               to               believe               that               those               in               poverty               don't               need               the               playgrounds               or               any               of               the               other               recreational               space               because               people               in               poverty               don't               appreciate               their               neighborhood.

(Modem).

Such               neighborhood               integration               provides               positive               role               models               (people               whose               lives               are               getting               better,               whose               lives               are               active,               and               who               work               for               a               living.
               Also,               inherent               in               this               plan               for               freeways               and               other               urban               renewal               projects               is               that               lawmakers               made               these               changes,               such               as               urban               planning               initiatives               and               construction               of               freeways               in               areas               where               they               would               not               meet               political               resistance.

This               means               that               more               projects               were               developed               in               low               income               areas               than               anywhere               else.

"The               areas               that               urban               planners               deemed               to               be               slums               or               derelict               development,               however,               were               home               to               the               residents               who               lived               there,               the               small               businesses               that               served               them.

The               strength               of               many               such               communities               was               either               not               perceived               by               the               planners               or               not               of               interest               to               them.

They               leveled               communities               often               occupied               by               African               Americans               who               had               recently               arrived               from               the               rural               South"               (Cox               9).

Urban               renewal               is               nothing               less               than               an               attack               on               the               poor.

Many               poverty-stricken               neighborhoods               are               seen               as               blight"               for               the               city               to               be               rid               of.

Because               the               poor               do               not               have               the               necessary               political               connections,               they               are               rarely               able               to               successfully               fight               such               land-grabs.

The               result               is               that               neighborhoods               --               of               many               years               existence,               with               their               own               intricate               civil               societies               and               social               networks               among               people               --               are               destroyed               for               the               private               profit               of               the               wealthy.

In               place               of               the               living               neighborhoods,               the               freeways               or               empty               parking               lots               or               even               upscale               housing               is               built.
               California               Hwy               105               (Caltran               105)               is               an               example               of               many               of               the               principles               previously               discussed.

In               an               interview               with               Joyce               Perkins,               Executive               Director               of               LANI               (Los               Angeles               Neighborhood               Initiative),               she               discussed               California               Highway               105,               and               the               fact               that               originally               it               was               supposed               to               go               through               Beverly               Hills,               but               "it               kept               getting               moved               further               and               further               south               until               it               reached               a               place               called               Berkeley               Square"               (Perkins).

it               seems               no               coincidence               that               Beverly               hills               is               wealthy               and               Berkeley               Square               is               not               or               that               Los               Angeles               inner               city               residents               have               already               been               chopped               into               pieces               by               the               Harbor,               Long               Beach,               Santa               Monica,               or               Century               Freeways.

Joyce               Perkins               added,               "that               it               was               easy               enough               to               build               through               this               area               because               this               African               American               community               did               not               have               enough               power               or               voice               to               keep               the               project               from               occurring               there.

In               other               neighborhoods,               such               as               Beverly               hills,               people,               mostly               white,               had               much               more               power               and               had               voice               and               strong               stakeholder               participation               so               they               were               able               to               keep               this               project               from               occurring               in               their               area"               (Perkins).
               Picture               of               Hwy               105               from               dot.ca.gov
               A               case               to               document               the               above               principles               is               Boyle               Heights               community               and               surrounding               areas               like               the               Chavez               Ravine.

Boyle               Heights               used               to               be               kind               of               an               immigrant               center.

before               the               1950s               and               60s,               it               had               a               large               Japanese               population,               who               left               to               be               interned               for               World               War               II               and               never               returned.

it               also               had               a               large               Jewish               population               who               moved               to               the               suburbs.

it               this               point               it               became               largely               populated               by               Mexicans.

It               was               one               of               the               few               places               open               to               them               due               to               restrictive               covenants.

"Restrictive               racial               covenants               typically               excluded               the               Spanish-speaking               from               desirable               suburbs.

the               new               barrios               were               established               in               sections               of               town               that               other               more               affluent               groups               refused               to               inhabit"               (Bustamante               and               Castillo               127).

Things               like               freeway               construction               and               urban               renewal               began               to               happen               in               this               area               and               because               it               was               poor,               the               community               did               not               have               the               resources               to               fight               the               proposals.

"Thirty-five               years               of               intense               freeway               construction               eliminated               2,900               homes,               displaced               10,000               people               and               left               noise               and               air               pollution               in               its               wake.

Schools               are               crowded.

Housing               is               scarce,               and               most               of               the               housing               that               does               exist               is               owned               by               absentee               landlords.

Unemployment               is               higher               than               in               most               other               areas               of               the               city.

There               is               a               sense               that               the               community               has               little               or               no               political               power               and               is               largely               ignored               by               city               government               (Sahagun               1).

According               to               Sahagun               as               well,               after               WWII,               the               rail               lines               took               ¼               of               Boyle               Heights               western               and               southern               parts.

The               freeway               system               including               San               Bernadino,               Santa               Ana,               the               Golden               State,               Santa               Monica               and               Pomona               took               another               12%               of               the               land               available               in               Boyle               heights.

(Sahagun)               Four               major               highways               were               built               through               here-two               in               the               1940s               and               two               in               the               1960s.

Boyle               Heights               has               suffered               greatly.

The               community               is               separated               into               four               smaller               areas,               which               has               resulted               in               inadequate               services               to               these               neighborhoods.
               Acuna               goes               as               far               as               to               say               that               "Two               of               the               most               spectacular               instances               of               spatial               violation               against               Mexicans               and               other               poor               people               in               the               central               city               was               the               displacement               of               barrios               in               Chavez               Ravine               to               the               north               for               the               construction               of               Dodger               Stadium               and               the               vivisection               of               Boyle               heights               and               the               greater               Eastside               barrios               to               make               up               for               the               way               the               East               L.A.

freeway               interchange               and               several               highways               that               radiated               from               it"               (Acuna).

According               to               Hines,               Chavez               Ravine               was               located               on               a               "315-acre               parcel               of               hilly,               wooded,               and               picturesque               'rural'               land               very               near               the               center               of               downtown               Los               Angeles"               (Hines               123).

At               first               this               area               was               supposed               to               become               a               place               for               a               public               housing               project,               and               then               it               was               to               house               the               stadium.
               As               shown,               the               intermingling               of               the               concepts               of               segregation,               race,               and               poverty               with               the               concepts               of               freeway               construction,               urban               renewal               programs,               and               the               rise               of               the               automobile               is               almost               as               twisted               as               the               cloverleaf               freeway.

It               is               impossible               to               understand               how               just               one               of               these               factors               plays               out               because               each               one               is               so               intertwined               with               the               next               one.

It               is               clear               that               freeway               construction               and               urban               renewal               played               and               continues               to               play               a               huge               role               in               the               racial               separation               of               our               nation.

This               in               turn,               ties               into               so               many               other               areas.

Many               minorities               are               where               they               are               because               of               racist               policies               of               the               federal               government,               giving               low               interest               loans               to               one               race               but               not               to               another               or               dismissing               the               importance               of               low-income               communities               in               favor               of               fast-access               freeways.

Because               minorities               are               racially               segregated,               they               go               to               the               worst               schools               and               get               the               worst               education,               which               increases               their               chances               of               continuing               to               be               racially               segregated.
               the               political               ramifications               of               these               government-sponsored               loans               for               highways               and               housing               are               huge.

They               contributed               to               the               fall               of               the               mom               and               pop               businesses               and               the               rise               of               huge               conglomerations               or               malls               of               the               suburbs.

Money               was               taken               out               of               once-thriving               urban               areas               and               redistributed               in               the               suburbs.

This               led               to               less               control               of               neighborhood               economic               forces               (if               there               was               such               things               as               neighborhoods),               since               companies               were               larger               and               based               somewhere               else.

If               more               people               had               been               involved               in               the               process               of               the               creation               of               our               road               system,               the               road               system               may               be               smaller               today.

America               may               have               invested               more               in               its               system               of               public               transport,               like               Europe               did.

America               may               be               less               dependent               on               foreign               goods               with               more               unified               neighborhoods               and               a               closer               sense               of               community               without               the               problems               associated               with               urban               sprawl.

America               may               be               less               isolated,               both               in               the               cities               and               the               suburbs.

While               the               cities               are               noisy               and               dangerous,               and               in               the               ghettoes,               many               people               isolate               themselves,               the               suburbs               are               also               isolated.

People               stopped               sitting               on               the               front               porch               in               the               evening.

Suburbs               without               sidewalks               greatly               lessened               the               chance               that               someone               might               stroll               by               on               a               leisurely               walk.

Suburban               housewives               found               themselves               alienated               from               the               rest               of               the               world.
               Eric               Avila               so               forcefully               sums               up               the               entire               problem               in               Popular               Culture               in               the               Age               of               White               Flight.

"But               as               racial               privilege               sustained               by               redlining,               blockbusting,               restrictive               covenants,               and               municipal               incorporation,               as               well               as               by               outright               violence,               federally               sponsored               suburbanization               removed               an               expanding               category               of               "white"               Americans               from               what               deteriorated               into               inner-city               reservations               of               racialized               poverty.

The               collusion               of               public               policy               and               private               practices               enforced               a               spatial               distinction               between               "black"               cities               and               "white"               suburbs               and               gave               shape               to               what               the               Kerner               Commission,               a               presidential               commission               appointed               to               assess               the               causes               of               the               1965               Watts               Riots               in               Los               Angeles,               identified               as               'two               species,               one               black,               one               white-separate               and               unequal"               (Avila               5).

Now               Joyce               Perkins               does               tell               us               that               times               are               a-changin'.

LAX               now               wants               to               expand,               but               there               are               neighborhood               councils               and               focus               groups               providing               people               with               a               voice               in               their               own               neighborhoods.

We               must               do               more               not               to               allow               this               forced               segregation               to               occur               again,               and               to               fix               the               problems               that               have               already               been               made.

It               seems               that               true               urban               renewal               would               involve               creating               affordable               housing               for               the               people               of               these               neighborhoods.

It               might               also               provide               access               to               quality               education               and               quality               jobs.

These               jobs               could               earn               at               least               a               living               wage               so               that               people               did               have               some               choice               as               to               where               they               lived.

Employers               and               government               could               respect               the               rights               of               these               people.

It               is               time               that               the               people               of               these               communities               or               any               communities               are               listened               to.

Progress               is               great,               but               it               also               creates               many               other               problems.

How               much               money               a               neighborhood               has               should               not               matter               in               the               health               and               happiness               of               America's               people.

yes,               true               urban               renewal               would               involve               a               renewal               in               the               way               these               places               are               seen               and               perceived               ass               well               as               the               discriminatory               history.
               Works               Cited
               Acuna,               Rodolfo.

Anything               But               Mexican.

Verso:               New               York,               1995.
               Avila,               Eric,               Popular               Culture               in               the               Age               of               White               Flight,               Fear               and               Fantasy               in               suburban
               Los               Angeles.

American               Crossroads               13.

Accessed               on               April               2,               2007               at
               http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9982/9982.ch01.html
               Berman,               Marshall,               All               That               Is               Melts               Into               Air,               New               York:               Penguin               Books,               1988.
               Bustamonte,               Rios               and               Castillo,               Pedro,               An               Illustrated               History               of               Mexican               Los               Angeles
               1781-1985.

LA:               UCLA               Chicano               Studies               Research               Center               Publications,               1986.
               Chudacoff,               Howard.

"The               Politics               of               Growth               in               the               Era               of               Suburbanization,               1945-1974,
               in               Chudacoff               and               Smith,               The               Evolution               of               American               Urban               Society,               pp.

263-296.
               Cox,               Wendell,               Demographia:               The               Role               of               Urban               Planning               in               the               Decline               of               American
               Central               Cities,               Accessed               March               29,               2007               at               http://demographia.com/db-xplannerscities.pdf
               Fotsch,               Paul               Mason,               "The               Building               of               a               Superhighway               Future               at               the               New               York               World's
               Fair,"               Cultural               Critique,               48               (Spring               2001),               65-9.
               Greene,               Ronald               Walter,               Malthusian               Worlds:               U.S.

Leadership               and               the               Governing               of               the
               Population               Crisis,               1939.
               Hines,               Thomas               S.,               "housing,               baseball,               and               creeping               socialism:               the               battle               of               Chavez               ravine,               Los               Angeles               1949-1959,               Journal               of               Urban               History,               Sage               Publications,               vol.

8.

no.

2,               February               1982.
               Jalbert,               Matthew,               "Burbs,               Blockbusting,               and               Blacks:               Morphosis               of               the               Postwar
               American               City,               "Radical               Urban               Theory,               Accessed               March               29,               2007,               at
               Perkins,               Joyce,               Personal               Interview.

April               1,               2007.
               Sclove,               Richard,               "The               Ghost               in               the               Modem,"               The               Washington               Post,               Sunday,               May               29,
               1994.
               Torre,               de               la,               Emmanuel,               Racial               Violence               in               LA,               Accessed               March               26,               2007               at
               http://www.studentretentioncenter.ucla.edu/sfiles/Racial_Violence_LA.htm
               Venkatesh,               Sudhir               Alladi,               American               Projects,               Cambridge:               Harvard               University               Press,
               2000.
               Access               to               Catholic               School               Justice               Teaching               housing               and               urban               renewal               Accessed               March
               29,               2007,               at               http://justpeace.org/structures/housing.htm
               Prussel,               Deborah               and               Tepperman,               Jean.

September-October               2001.
               Sahagun,               Louis,               "Boyle               Heights               Problems,               Pride               and               Promise"               Accessed               April               1,               2007,
               at               http://www.latinosandmedia.org/jawards/works/LAT83_011.html
               Timeline               of               Notable               Events               of               the               Interstate               Highway               System               in               California.

Accessed               April               1,               2007,               at               http://www.dot.ca.gov/interstate/timeline.htm
               Wallace,               Henry               A.

to               Roosevelt,               Franklin               D,               February               13,               1939,               Copy               of               Bureau               of               Public               Records,               RG               30,               Classified               Central               Files               4107,               National               Archives               II,               College               Park,               MD.
               http://www.childproofing.org/cslzstories.html
               Venkatesh,               American               Project






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